Electronic Tongues and Noses: A General Overview.

As technology advances, electronic tongues and noses are becoming increasingly important in various industries. These devices can accurately detect and identify different substances and gases based on their chemical composition. This can be incredibly useful in fields such as environmental monitoring and industrial food applications, where the quality and safety of products or ecosystems should be ensured through a precise analysis. Traditionally, this task is performed by an expert panel or by using laboratory tests but sometimes becomes a bottleneck because of time and other human factors that can be solved with technologies such as the provided by electronic tongue and nose devices. Additionally, these devices can be used in medical diagnosis, quality monitoring, and even in the automotive industry to detect gas leaks. The possibilities are endless, and as these technologies continue to improve, they will undoubtedly play an increasingly important role in improving our lives and ensuring our safety. Because of the multiple applications and developments in this field in the last years, this work will present an overview of the electronic tongues and noses from the point of view of the approaches developed and the methodologies used in the data analysis and steps to this aim. In the same manner, this work shows some of the applications that can be found in the use of these devices and ends with some conclusions about the current state of these technologies.

Cytokine and T cell responses in post-chikungunya viral arthritis: A cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: To define the relationship between chronic chikungunya post-viral arthritis disease severity, cytokine response and T cell subsets in order to identify potential targets for therapy. METHODS: Participants with chikungunya arthritis were recruited from Colombia from 2019-2021. Arthritis disease severity was quantified using the Disease Activity Score-28 and an Arthritis-Flare Questionnaire adapted for chikungunya arthritis. Plasma cytokine concentrations (interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p70, IL-13, interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)) were measured using a Meso Scale Diagnostics assay. Peripheral blood T cell subsets were measured using flow cytometry. RESULTS: Among participants with chikungunya arthritis (N = 158), IL-2 levels and frequency of regulatory T cells (Tregs) were low. Increased arthritis disease activity was associated with higher levels of inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF and CRP) and immunoregulatory cytokine IL-10 (p<0.05). Increased arthritis flare activity was associated with higher Treg frequencies (p<0.05) without affecting T effector (Teff) frequencies, Treg/Teff ratios and Treg subsets. Finally, elevated levels of IL-2 were correlated with increased Treg frequency, percent Tregs out of CD4+ T cells, and Treg subsets expressing immunosuppressive markers, while also correlating with an increased percent Teff out of live lymphocytes (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: Chikungunya arthritis is characterized by increased inflammatory cytokines and deficient IL-2 and Treg responses. Greater levels of IL-2 were associated with improved Treg numbers and immunosuppressive markers. Future research may consider targeting these pathways for therapy.